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About Electronics

Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and devices such as, [semiconductor]s, [resistor]s, [inductor]s, [capacitor]s, nano-structures, and [thermionic valves]. All applications of electronics involve the transmission of [Electric power] and possibly [information]. Although considered to be a theoretical branch of [physics], the design and construction of [electronic circuit]s to solve practical problems is an essential technique in the fields of [electronics engineering] and [computer engineering].

The study of new semiconductor devices and surrounding technology is sometimes considered a branch of [physics]. This article focuses on [engineering] aspects of electronics. Other important topics include [electronic waste] and occupational health impacts of semiconductor manufacturing.

Overview of electronic systems and circuits checking a prototypeElectronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are:

The controlling and processing of [data].

The conversion to/from and distribution of [electric power].

Both these applications involve the creation and/or detection of [electromagnetic field]s and [electric current]s. While [electrical energy] had been used for some time prior to the late [19th century] to transmit data over [Telegraphy] and [telephone] lines, development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of [radio].

One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into 3 parts:

[Input]s – Electronic or [Mechanics] [sensor]s (or [transducer]s). These devices take [Signal (electrical engineering)]/information from external sources in the physical world (such as [Antenna (radio)] or technology [Computer networking]) and convert those signals/information into [electric current]/[voltage] or [digital] (high/low) signals within the system.

[Signal processing] – These circuits serve to manipulate, interpret and transform inputted signals in order to make them useful for a desired application. Recently, complex signal processing has been accomplished with the use of [Digital signal processor].

[Output]s – [Actuator]s or other devices (such as transducers) that transform current/voltage signals back into useful physical form (e.g., by accomplishing a physical task such as rotating an [electric motor]).

For example, a [television] set contains these 3 parts. The television's input transforms a broadcast signal (received by an antenna or fed in through a cable) into a current/voltage signal that can be used by the device. Signal processing circuits inside the television extract information from this signal that dictates [brightness], [colour] and [sound] level. Output devices then convert this information back into physical form. A [cathode ray tube] transforms electronic signals into a visible [image] on the screen. Magnet-driven [loudspeaker]s convert signals into audible sound.

Electronic devices and components An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system whose intention is to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be in mutual electromechanical contact, usually by being [soldering] to a [printed circuit board] (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits.

Types of circuits Analog circuits Most [analog signal] electronic appliances, such as [radio] receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.

Analog circuits are sometimes called [linear circuit]s although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal."

Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled [switch] having essentially two levels of output.

Digital circuits Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.In most cases the number of different states of a node is two, represented by two voltage levels labeled "Low" and "High". Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.

[Computer]s, electronic [quartz clock]s, and [programmable logic controller]s (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of [digital] circuits. [Digital Signal Processor]s are another example.

Building-blocks:

[Logic gate]s
[Adder (electronics)]s
[Binary multiplier]s
[Flip-flop (electronics)]s
[Counter]s
[Processor register]s
[Multiplexer]s
[Schmitt trigger]s

Highly integrated devices:

[Microprocessor]s
[Microcontroller]s
[Application-specific integrated circuit](ASIC)
[Digital signal processor] (DSP)
[Field-programmable gate array] (FPGA)

Mixed-signal circuits Mixed-signal circuits refers to integrated circuits (ICs) which have both analog circuits and digital circuits combined on a single semiconductor die or on the same circuit board.[Mixed-signal integrated circuit]s are becoming increasingly common. Mixed circuits are usually used to control an [analogue electronics] device using digital logic, for example the speed of a motor.[Analog to digital converter]s and [digital to analog converter]s are the primary examples. Other examples are [transmission gate]s and buffers.

Heat dissipation and thermal management Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Techniques for heat dissipation can include [heatsink]s and [fan (mechanical)] for air cooling, and other forms of [computer cooling] such as [water cooling]. These techniques use [convection], [Heat conduction], & [radiation] of heat energy.

Noise Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise is definedIEEE Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms ISBN-13: 978-0471428060 as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit.

Electronics theory Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.

Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain [Node (circuits)] or the current though a certain [Path (graph theory)] of a [Graph (mathematics)]. A common analytical tool for this is the [SPICE] circuit simulator.

Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of [electromagnetic field] theory.

Electronic test equipment Electronic test equipment is used to create stimulus signals and capture responses from electronic [Devices Under Test] (DUTs).In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired.

Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment.

Computer aided design (CAD) Today's electronics engineers have the ability to [Circuit design] [Electronic circuit]s using premanufactured building blocks such as [power supply], [semiconductor]s (such as [transistor]s), and [integrated circuit]s. [Electronic design automation] software programs include [schematic capture] programs and [pcb design] programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are [NI Multisim], Cadence ([ORCAD]), Eagle PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus) and many others.

Construction methods Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, in the beginning [Point-to-point construction] with components attached to wooden breadboards were used to construct circuits. [Printed circuit board#.22Cordwood.22 construction] and [wire wrap]s were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use [printed circuit board]s (made of [FR4]), and highly [integrated circuit]s. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to the European Union, with its [Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive] (RoHS) and [Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive] (WEEE), which went into force in July 2006.

Electronics industry

[Semiconductor sales leaders by year]

Branch pages

[Digital electronics]
[Analogue electronics]
[Microelectronics]
[Fuzzy electronics]
[Circuit Design]
[Integrated circuit]
[Optoelectronics]
[Semiconductor]
[Semiconductor device]

Electronics

Questions and Answers

Electronics?

Q) Help im building a project for coursework and i want to know whether it is possible to have 2 negative voltage thresholds for a schmitt Trigger of -1V and -3V (using an opamp). If possible youcould be really helpful and give me resistor values as well for a Inverting Schmitt Trigger. please

A) Look at the problem a different way. If your circuit has a +5V, 0V and -5V rails, then that's the same as 0V, +5V, and +10V rail. It's all to do with reference voltages. In your example, you could set trigger for +4V and +2V with reference to the -5V rail. Get the idea?

What dimensions are the electronics in an average 2007 processor, and how many transistors will that contain?

Q) I am interested in processor design, and I would like to know how many transistors are in the average processor designed in the last year or so is, and how much space the actual trasistors take up as a whole. I'm not meaning the chip, including casing and everything; I'm meaning the actual electronics. Please message me with any questions before answering.

A) the transostors take up 65nm, soon to be shrunk even more to 45nm. core 2 are pruduced using 65nm transistors

Which is the most complete English-French dictionary of computer science and electronics ?

Q) Which is the most complete English-French dictionary of computer science and electronics ? Does-it exist on a CD-Rom or on a website ? Thank you for your reply !

A) Hi there, I've no idea. Phone the Eurpoean Bookshop in London The European Bookshop 5 Warwick Street London W1B 5XF 020 7534 5259 www.europeanschoolbooks.com They are just off Piccadilly Circus and sell any book you want in any European language (Except Dutch! Bugger!!!!!). They can order them in and have an extensive database of titles. Bonne chasse mon ami Je vous souhaite un joyeux noel et une bonne annee nouvelle si vous avez d'autre questions pour moi, contactez moi sur lepontneufdeparis@yahoo.co.uk et je sera content de repondre a toutes vos questions. jusqu'a la: au revoir!! Michael Cavanagh My German is a hell of a lot better (I hope my French isn't too bad).

How to get into hobby electronics?

Q) I want an easy going book or kit set that helps introduce electronics, but not completely beginner. I am undergraduate physicist so am a little familiar but would like to make some simple projects and then progress. Any recommendations?

A) I got into electronics by buying a bread board and some components. i will list them to you here: -Voltage regulator -Some 74xx ICs -Some transistors, -Some small resistors -Power supply -Some connectors wires. and took a basic course that explain the basics of circuits. That's it, things will come naturally later based on your curiosity.

How do electronics work in space?

Q) I thought a magnetic field was required for polarity and so positive and negative poles remained constant. Even that when Earth's poles flip, as they're prone to do apparently every few thousand years, our electronic machines will be made useless. So why do electronics work in space, or robots work on Mars and the moon?

A) Electronic circuits have no need of external magnetic fields. Where did you get the idea otherwise?

What company suplies custom electronics?

Q) I recently notices Virgin Media offer 'free virgin TV boxes', basically a freeview box with virgin media printed on. I know for a fact virgin don't make them. What companies make custom branded electronics?

A) Lots of companies do, Maplins are very popular & the advice service is good but there are literally thousands more out there.

Where is a good place to buy electronics in London, like video games?

Q) I want to buy the Nintendo Wii when it comes out in about a month, but don't know of a place to buy it at. Is there any department store that sells electronics/videogames for a decent price?

A) The Tottenham Court Road area stores specialise in the latest gear, true, but they tend to sell higher-tagged stuff like laptops rather than mass-market consoles. As to the price - if you really want it the day it comes out, you're going to pay through the nose, as the supply to mainstream dealers is always choked off at launch to maximise price. You might be better off contacting a specialist importer, but be very very careful who you deal with. As to stores: try - Hamleys GAME (often found in Debenhams if you can't find a solo branch) Virgin Megastores HMV Check with the spoddiest-looking member of staff you can find to see if they have preordering. If they can't stop giggling when you say you want a "Wii", move on and try another one.

UK is 240v, USA is 110v. Can I use US electronics in the UK with a different power adaptor?

Q) Or will they blow up? Electronics are cheaper in the USA & I want to buy a digital camera from there, but I don't know if it will work. Can I just get a 240v adaptor or is is more complicated than that?

A) To use American products abroad, there are two considerations: you have to ADAPT the plug to fit the other country's outlet configuration, and you need to CONVERT the voltage from 110-120V (typical voltages in the US) to the local voltage (220-240V throughout every part of Europe I've ever visited). I've traveled throughout Europe (the Continent & UK) with my Canon digital camera and battery charger. The charger itself says that it is compatible with 60V-240V power supplies, so I do not need to convert the voltage (with a converter), but its US plug is not compatible with the outlet configurations in either the UK or the rest of Europe, so I use the appropriate adaptor to make it fit in the outlet. Check the information on the camera you're looking at - either look at the user's manual online (preferred), or go to a store in the UK and flip the charger over to see what kind of voltage with which it is compatible (this presumes that you'll get the same kind of charger with the camera from the US, which you most likely will - apart from the different plug configuration). If it works with 240V, you will only need an adaptor plug. If it only works with up to 120V (which, I have to say, would surprise me), then you'll need a converter and an adaptor (the converter will probably come with a set of adaptor plugs). Obviously, the latter case will be more expensive. Make sure you consider all the attendant costs - including, as Stephen M mentioned, any loss of warranty that might come from purchasing an item from outside your own country - before you decide this is the best option for you.

What courses would i have to do to be an electrical engineer, I have no electronics qualifications?

Q) What courses would i have to do to be an electrical engineer, I'm 17 and have no electronics qualifications, i do have a couple of standard grades, and am currently studing HND Photography, and want to change my direction in life, I left highschool before i started my higher Exams (A levels in england). I have always wanted to become an engineer and create new things, im also quite into mechanics and would also like to learn more about the physics behind the standard combustion engine. But primarily want to become an electrical engineer and work with electronics. Any answers highly appreciated! Thanks

A) For starters, all of the basic courses in English, bio, social sciences, etc. For an electrical engineer you'd have lots of coursework in computer sciences, mathematics, physics, circuits, energy systems, and more. Look at a college curriculum.

I have an idea for a new electronics device where can i get a prototype made?

Q) If anyone knows how would i go about selling my ideas to the electronics companys would this be possible

A) get the idea patented, copyrighted. else you stand to lose everything you have put into this. Patenting a product is a long winded affiar, but if you believe your device is going to be marketable and a must have item, dont show off the idea until you have full ownership,

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electronics?

Q) are there any women in yahoo land that have gone to school for electronics of some kind and do you enjoy it

A) I did, by accident..I kinda like this guy in College, he was an electronic major...I was pre-med...well..I had wanted to be close to him..so I sign up just for the heck of it...only 3 girls in the class...and I got an A and loved it...I graduated with honors and the best part I married him...double whammo!! I love it, I'm good at it...I'm the repair man where ever I go and visited...I gotta fix something...but I'm constantly still taking classes 'cuz you're never done! the best part is ..since I'm a female..I make as much money as a man does...

Being an Electronics engineer, how can I fulfill the reqirements of a software industry?

Q) I am an electronics engineer. I want to join software industry. But in most interview, I face the question "Being an electronics engineer how can you fulfill our requirements? Plz give me a strong and proper answer for this question.

A) well..maybe take some software courses first..

How to fix a car electronics after shorting the battery?

Q) My pops replaced an alternator for my Nissan Altima ('2001 GXE) yesterday and forgot to disconnect my battery before starting the procedure. Now the car electronics are dead. The car runs when I turn the ignition and drives alright (though the engine block vibrates alot more than we started. . . probably because the tensioner is not set to the correct length), but the dashboard, horn etc etc do not work. Does this mean that I just need to replace my fuses? Or is there more damage done than before installing the alternator? I am going to go to the parts store later today. Please advise. My father and I looked into the car yesterday and found that it wasn't the Fuse box right next to the battery that was dead, it was the Fuse-able box that was dead. So right now, the radiator fans, anti-theft, air conditioning, power windows etc etc are the only ones that are not working.

A) only way of telling is to check it out look at all your fuses you can try an reset everything by disconnecting -ground cable for a few minutes

What should you use to clean the electronics on a remote for a car?

Q) I have a remote for a vehicle and it was working fine before, but now it only sometimes work. I've already replaced the battery on it, but I think there may be residue build-up in the electronics inside and may need some cleaning up. What solution can I use to help? Does that dust freeze removal spray for computer parts work for this or should a different type of spray be used?

A) Go to a parts store such as Auto Zone and get some stuff called QD Electronic Cleaner made by CRC. This stuff dries quick and is the best stuff for a job such as yours. I have used this stuff many times with good results. I'm not sure about the stuff you have, and I wouldn't say for sure it will do the job. What you need is something that will clean as well as lubricate the remote. Radio Shak also makes some good electronic cleaner/lubricate for movable electronic things such as switches and controls, but it is expensive compared to the CRC brand. Glad I could Help you. Good Luck!!!

What powers the electronics and hydraulics of a small business jet?

Q) I am curious what powers the basic electronics and hydraulics of a business jet? Is it a battery? Is the engine somehow powering it? Is there an APU unit and so on...

A) it the the blades in the engine

is it safe to buy electronics over the internet?

Q) I've been buying electronics in big electronics store. However, this time there is this video camera that I really like but found to be quite expensive in those stores. I browsed in the internet and discovered prospect websites which sell that gadget really cheap. Now before diving into it, is it safe and worth buying over the internet?

A) You have to make sure they will give you a 100% guarantee if you can give it back or not.

What college path do I take to become an electronics engineer?

Q) I'll be attending Ohio State next year and they have electrical engineering and computer engineering, but they don't have electronics engineering. From my research on electronics engineering it's a mix of computer and electrical, but what would be a good major and minor so as to land a job as an electronics engineer after graduating?

A) Electrical engineering. Computer engineering is more centered towards the building and design of computers and computer systems. Electronics engineering is more like a subset of electrical engineering which is more broad. You'll still learn what you want to know about electronics. Electrical devices are things like resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Electronic devices are associated with things that are made with semi conductive material like diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Most electrical circuits are electronic circuits. The AC/DC converter that you use to recharge your cell phone is a simple electronic circuit. Your digital alarm clock,cd player, cell phone,stereo, and computer are all electronic circuits. So your major will still be electrical, but you will specialize in which types of circuits that you want to deal with. A first course on transistors will make things clearer. Transistors are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits, and electronic circuits fall into 2 categories: analog and digital. About 95% of electronic circuits nowadays are digital. A transistor is a device that does one of 2 things: it can be used as an amplifier or a switch. If it is used as an amplifier, it is usually performing an analog function. If it is used as a switch, it is performing a digital function. Transistors are hooked up with each other to perform complex tasks, and the more transistors, the more complicated the device, and the more things it can do. Your alarm clock, for example, has dozens of transistors in it acting as switches, while your computer has billions of transistors in it switching off and on to do all the things that a computer does. All engineers use computers a lot. A computer engineer is more focused on designing computers and focuses more on actual programming to control how the chips in the computer function. An electronics engineer focuses more on learning how to use pre-written software to help them design simpler electronic circuits. So your major will still be electrical, no need for a minor. You just need to decide which types of electronic circuits to specialize in.

How to test an electronics enclosure to determine if water is condensing inside?

Q) We have a custom enclosure that houses electronics. We have a humidity sensor installed and can read that via wireless. We want to know if air trapped inside the housing will condense under any circumstances. How do we test for this? We have put the housing into a freezer and then brought it out and read the sensor. Are there other tests that we can do?

A) You could put a glass window at the lowest point and look at that, either visually or with a beam set at a glancing angle and going to a photosensor. You could also put an glass plate in there and deposit two electrodes on the glass. Measure the current between the electrodes and it will increase dramatically with moisture in there.

What kind of a device would stop a cars electronics from 2" up to 10feet?

Q) Is there such a device; if not, would one be hard to construct? Don't want to injure the passengers, just stop the electronics of the automobile.

A) Law enforcement agencies have been anticipating an EMP gun for years such a device would stop a cars engine in its tracks because most cars now are computer controlled and in the hands of a trained officer it could bring someone to a safe stop for apprehension as opposed to using spike strips which can casue a car to lose control. Such a device could be made but it would draw a glutonous amount of electricity and weigh a couple hundred lbs. and if that isn't enough to deter you such a device in use would almost certainly get you arrested on federal charges both for FCC violations (felony class) and for wreckless endangerment (at the very least a misdemeanor) all in all you can expect at least 3-5 years in prison and thousands of dollars in fines, so I wouldn't even entertain the idea. Remember even when this does become feasable there is no way to select which electronics to disable, they would all go.

What is the point of the airplane electronics rules?

Q) Why are electronics required to be turned off during takeoff and landing, and why at the end of the flight during taxi are cell phones allowed, but no other electronics?

A) Today, most airplanes electronics are so shielded and frequency specific that basic electronics will NOT interfere with flight instruments and radios... most of the rules are based on old technology - however, in the airline defence, cheap electronics (rare it could happen) may not be FCC approved and cause issues - rather than have to inspect each device, they just disallow all. Cell phones are very important to people and have been very highly researched to be allowed to be used. Soon, cell phones will be allowed in all phases of flight...